Consequences of child abuse and neglect

Consequences of child abuse and neglect Introduction Child abuse and neglect are an unfortunate reality for many children in our community. The past thirty years have witnessed a growth in our awareness of and attention to the problems faced by children exposed to violence in their homes. The consequences of maltreatment can be devastating. For over 30 years, clinicians have described the effects of child abuse and neglect on the physical, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral development of children. Physical consequences range from minor injuries to severe brain damage and even death. Psychological consequences range from chronic low self-esteem to severe dissociative states. The cognitive effects of abuse range from attentional problems and learning disorders to severe organic brain syndromes. Behaviorally, the consequences of abuse range from poor peer relations all the way to extraordinarily violent behaviors. Thus, the consequences of abuse and neglect affect the victims themselves and the society in which they live. REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS A 1989 conference convened by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development recommended that maltreatment be defined as behavior towards another person, which (a) is outside the norms of conduct, and (b) entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm. Behaviors included will consist of actions and omissions, ones that are intentional and ones that are unintentional (Christoffel et al., 1992). The term child maltreatment refers to a broad range of behaviors that involve risk for the child. Four general categories of child maltreatment are now generally recognized: (1) physical abuse, (2) sexual abuse, (3) neglect, and (4) emotional maltreatment. Each category, in turn, covers a range of behaviors. Physical abuse includes scalding, beatings with an object, severe physical punishment, and a rare form of the abuse called Munchausen by proxy, wherein an adult will feign or induce illness in a child in order to attract medical attention and support. Sexual abuse includes incest, sexual assault by a relative or stranger, fondling of genital areas, exposure to indecent acts, sexual rituals, or involvement in child pornography. Child neglect is the presence of certain deficiencies in caretaker obligations (usually the parent, although neglect can be found in residential centers or foster care homes) that harm the childs psychological and/or physical health. Child neglect covers a range of behaviors including educational, supervisory, medical, physical, and emotional neglect, and abandonment, often complicated by cultural and contextual factors. Several authors (Mrazek and Mrazek, 1985; Zuravin, 1991) have noted the relative lack of attention to definitional issues of child neglect, particularly given its greater reported prevalence (NCCAN, 1981, 1988b; Wolock and Horowitz, 1984). Emotional maltreatment, a recently recognized form of child victimization, includes such acts as verbal abuse and belittlement, symbolic acts designed to terror ize a child, and lack of nurturance or emotional availability by caregivers. Effects of child abuse and neglect Physical Health Consequence The immediate physical effects of abuse or neglect can be relatively minor (bruises or cuts) or severe (broken bones, hemorrhage, or even death). In some cases the physical effects are temporary; however, the pain and suffering they cause a child should not be discounted. Meanwhile, the long-term impact of child abuse and neglect on physical health is just beginning to be explored. According to the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), more than one-quarter of children who had been in foster care for longer than 12 months had some lasting or recurring health problem (Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation [ACF/ OPRE], 2004a). Below are some outcomes researchers have identified: Shaken baby syndrome: Shaking a baby is a common form of child abuse. The injuries caused by shaking a baby may not be immediately noticeable and may include bleeding in the eye or brain, damage to the spinal cord and neck, and rib or bone fractures (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2007). Impaired brain development: Child abuse and neglect have been shown, in some cases, to cause important regions of the brain to fail to form or grow properly, resulting in impaired development (De Bellis Thomas, 2003). These alterations in brain maturation have long-term consequences for cognitive, language, and academic abilities (Watts-English, Fortson, Gibler, Hooper, De Bellis, 2006). NSCAW found more than three-quarters of foster children between 1 and 2 years of age to be at medium to high risk for problems with brain development, as opposed to less than half of children in a control sample (ACF/ OPRE, 2004a). Poor physical health: Several studies have shown a relationship between various forms of household dysfunction (including childhood abuse) and poor health (Flaherty et al., 2006; Felitti, 2002). Adults who experienced abuse or neglect during childhood are more likely to suffer from physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, high blood pressure, and ulcers (Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2007). Psychological Consequence The immediate emotional effects of abuse and neglectà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬isolation, fear, and an inability to trustà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬can translate into lifelong consequences, including low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. Researchers have identified links between child abuse and neglect and the following: Difficulties during infancy: Depression and withdrawal symptoms were common among children as young as 3 who experienced emotional, physical, or environmental neglect (Dubowitz, Papas, Black, Starr, 2002). Poor mental and emotional health: In one long-term study, as many as 80 percent of young adults who had been abused met the diagnostic criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder at age 21. These young adults exhibited many problems, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts (Silverman, Reinherz, Giaconia, 1996). Other psychological and emotional conditions associated with abuse and neglect include panic disorder, dissociative disorders, attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, depression, anger, posttraumatic stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorder (Teicher, 2000; De Bellis Thomas, 2003; Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2007). Cognitive difficulties: NSCAW found that children placed in out-of-home care due to abuse or neglect tended to score lower than the general population on measures of cognitive capacity, language development, and academic achievement (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). A 1999 LONGSCAN study also found a relationship between substantiated child maltreatment and poor academic performance and classroom functioning for school-age children (Zolotor, Kotch, Dufort, Winsor, Catellier, 1999). Social difficulties: Children who experience rejection or neglect are more likely to develop antisocial traits as they grow up. Parental neglect is also associated with borderline personality disorders and violent behavior (Schore, 2003). Behavioural Consequences Not all victims of child abuse and neglect will experience behavioral consequences. However, behavioral problems appear to be more likely among this group, even at a young age. An NSCAW survey of children ages 3 to 5 in foster care found these children displayed clinical or borderline levels of behavioral problems at a rate more than twice that of the general population (ACF, 2004b). Later in life, child abuse and neglect appear to make the following more likely: Difficulties during adolescence: Studies have found abused and neglected children to be at least 25 percent more likely to experience problems such as delinquency, teen pregnancy, low academic achievement, drug use, and mental health problems (Kelley, Thornberry, Smith, 1997). Other studies suggest that abused or neglected children are more likely to engage in sexual risk-taking as they reach adolescence, thereby increasing their chances of contracting a sexually transmitted disease (Johnson, Rew, Sternglanz, 2006). Juvenile delinquency and adult criminality: According to a National Institute of Justice study, abused and neglected children were 11 times more likely to be arrested for criminal behavior as a juvenile, 2.7 times more likely to be arrested for violent and criminal behavior as an adult, and 3.1 times more likely to be arrested for one of many forms of violent crime (juvenile or adult) (English, Widom, Brandford, 2004). Alcohol and other drug abuse: Research consistently reflects an increased likelihood that abused and neglected children will smoke cigarettes, abuse alcohol, or take illicit drugs during their lifetime (Dube et al., 2001). According to a report from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, as many as two-thirds of people in drug treatment programs reported being abused as children (Swan, 1998). Abusive behavior: Abusive parents often have experienced abuse during their own childhoods. It is estimated approximately one-third of abused and neglected children will eventually victimize their own children. Societal Consequences While child abuse and neglect almost always occur within the family, the impact does not end there. Society as a whole pays a price for child abuse and neglect, in terms of both direct and indirect costs. Direct costs: Direct costs include those associated with maintaining a child welfare system to investigate and respond to allegations of child abuse and neglect, as well as expenditures by the judicial, law enforcement, health, and mental health systems. Indirect costs: Indirect costs represent the long-term economic consequences of child abuse and neglect. These include costs associated with juvenile and adult criminal activity, mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence. They can also include loss of productivity due to unemployment and underemployment, the cost of special education services, and increased use of the health care system. Possible Treatment Strategies Descriptions of treatment for child sexual abuse, physical abuse, and neglect have been reported separately within the literature, with much more attention paid to treatment of child sexual abuse. In fact, there are relatively few studies or reports of individual treatment of the physically abused or neglected child. In practice, however, treatment programs often address individual needs of children. The emphasis here is cognitive behavioral treatments, as these have shown the greatest effects in controlled studies. General Issues for Treatment First and foremost, it is important that the child be safe from potential harm from the offender as well as from non-believing or unsupportive family members. In addition to ethical issues of treating a child within an unsafe environment, treatment of abuse related problems is not likely to be effective if the child is living in such conditions. The targets for treatment are determined to a large degree by the childs presenting symptoms and are defined following the initial assessment. There are, however, certain overriding goals that should guide the treatment process. Treatment should be directive and focused on the abuse or trauma itself. Treatment approaches: Help and encourage the child to talk and think about the abuse/neglect without embarrassment or significant anxiety. Help the child to modulate and express feelings about the abuse; Reduce the intensity and frequency of behavioral and emotional symptoms; Clarify and change distorted, inaccurate, or unhealthy thinking patterns that might negatively affect the childs view of self and others; Help the child develop healthier attachments; Strengthen the childs coping skills Enhance social skills, and Educate the child regarding self-protective strategies. An additional goal, accomplished specifically through group therapy is to reduce the childs sense of isolation or stigma through exposure to other victims of abuse. Group treatment for victims of child physical abuse can have positive effects but may also be associated with increased behavior problems. Therefore the therapist should be cautious and monitor group participants behavior closely (Kolko Swenson, 2002). Treatment strategies Strategies for treating the abused child are varied and are used as appropriate to the childs presenting problems. Recommended treatment approaches include (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995): 1) cognitive-behavioral strategies, 2) graduated exposure to aspects of the abusive experience, 3) relaxation training , 4) education regarding abuse process and effects of abuse, 5) skills training, 6) supportive strategies teaching self-protective strategies, 7) behavioral strategies/parent training. Strategies for treating abuse victims which have received some scientific support, have been those derived from a cognitive behavioral perspective and which focus on the abuse itself. Cognitive behavioral strategies typically address the childs thinking patterns, affective response, and behavioral reactions to the abuse. In particular, the childs attributions of blame and responsibility for the abuse should be addressed. That is, the child should be helped to recognize that it is adults rather than children who are responsible for healthy parent-child interactions (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995). Gradual exposure or discussion of abuse experiences helps to reduce the childs anxiety and embarrassment and provides opportunities to modify inaccurate or self-defeating thinking processes. Relaxation training further addresses the childs fear or anxiety reaction to abuse-related cues and can facilitate more effective affect regulation. Educational approaches facilitate clarification of misperc eptions developed in response to the abuse. Skills training are used to teach the child coping strategies to manage negative emotions and to improve social/interpersonal functioning. Supportive techniques also are required, as the child may be coping with non-supportive family members, upcoming court proceedings, and/or negative reactions from peers. Education in the use of self-protective strategies is important for minimizing the likelihood that the child will be abused/neglected again (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995). It is important to establish a safety plan within the home, delineate danger cues, and identify support persons in the childs environment to decrease the secrecy within previously abusive/neglectful families. This, in turn, is expected to minimize the risk of repeated abuse. Age-related issues The treatment approach should be appropriate to the age of the child. For example, a four year old child should not be expected to come into a therapist or counselors office, sit on a couch, and recount the details of her abuse. The therapist can utilize a variety of play techniques to encourage the young child to communicate about his or her abuse. Many cognitive behavioral strategies which are used with adolescents and adults can be modified or simplified for use with young children (Kolko Swenson, 2002). For example, there are numerous scripts for relaxation training which are humorous and which engage the child in the therapeutic process. Puppets and drawings are useful as well for helping children to tell of their experiences, learn strategies for coping with negative emotions, and behaving in a more organized and directed manner. In contrast, older children and adolescents are more able to directly communicate their thoughts and feelings about their abuse experiences. It is recommended, however, that the therapist be flexible in method of approach. Drawings, therapeutic stories, and therapeutic games can be very helpful for engaging children of all ages. Treatment duration There are no clear guidelines regarding the length of treatment for the abused or neglected child, although most studies of treatment effectiveness have examined short-term interventions. Clinical experience suggests that while some children can resolve their negative reactions to the abuse in a relatively brief period (i.e., 12 16 sessions), many will require more extended treatment. Typically, treatment length will be determined by the nature of the childs social, behavioral, or emotional difficulties. That is, the child who is experiencing a wide array of problems of a serious nature is likely to require more intensive treatment over a long period of time. In addition, the quality of support that the child is receiving from the non-offending caregiver or other family members will affect treatment length. That is, child problems are typically more significant if there is no support coming from the non-offending caregiver, and, therefore, treatment of the child whose non-offending parent is disbelieving or non-supportive is likely to be more extensive than that of a child who has the support of a non-offending parent. Additional treatment approaches Family involvement in treatment Children should not be treated in isolation of intervention with their family and/or current living situation. Thus, many in the field recognize the importance of incorporating family members, particularly parents or primary caregivers, into treatment addressing abuse and neglect (Kolko Swenson, 2002). The goal of family work is to reduce the risk of recurring abuse, increase safety, and promote healthy growth and development of all family members. Family approaches address the needs of all family members while also targeting the interactions between them. However, it is difficult to specify the precise structure of therapeutic work addressing family issues. The specific approach with the family will vary; depending upon the childs living context and the level of acknowledgement of abuse by offender(s) and non-offending caregiver(s). For example, a child who has been placed in foster care due to parent-child abuse and lack of a supportive non-offending caregiver will be addressing d ifferent issues than the child who is receiving support from a non-offending caregiver and/or whose abusive parent is acknowledging abuse and is committed to treatment. Family work is not indicated if the child is in out-of-home placement and there are no plans for reunification. Treatment involving the entire family and that has as a goal family reunification is generally of a much longer duration than individual treatment of the child. Initial stages involve the child, offender, and non-offending caregiver in individual treatment, allowing members to first address individual issues related to the development and outcomes of the abuse. In addition, marital work is recommended to address relational issues between the childs caregivers prior to any reunification efforts. If early work with caregivers is successful, family therapy may ensue. The clarification session can serve as the bridge between each family members individual treatment and treatment addressing the entire familys needs. Therapeutic interventions with caregivers typically begin with individual sessions addressing the abuse itself, as well as the specific needs of family members. These stages of treatment encourage assumption of responsibility by the offender and non-offending caregiver(s). An alleged perpetrator who is denying having abused the child or a non-offending parent who does not believe that abuse has occurred cannot fully benefit from abuse-specific treatment. Therefore, initial treatment efforts focus on reducing denial. If such efforts fail, family treatment is contraindicated. If the offender is acknowledging having abused and/or neglected the child, then he or she can engage in abuse-specific treatment that addresses faulty thinking patterns, behavioral actions, emotional responses, and physiologic reactions. Sexual abuse offenders will be targeting their sexual arousal to children, thought patterns which allow them to justify perpetrating sexual abuse, and examining the behavioral repertoire that lead up to abuse. Physical abuse offenders will learn strategies for managing anger, parenting skills, and non-physical means of discipline. Caregivers who are neglectful will receive assistance in securing basic goods and resources, will learn parenting strategies and be taught skills which facilitate independent management of the children and familys needs. In the treatment of all forms of abuse it is important to address attributions of blame. Invariably child abuse/neglect offenders minimize their own responsibility for the abuse/neglect and project blame on other family members, most often the victim. The abuse clarification process (Lipovsky et al., 1998), which addresses such attributions, should be included in treatment if at all possible. The abuse clarification involves an acknowledging offender who has proceeded through treatment to a sufficient degree to be able to clarify the nature of the abuse, assume responsibility for the abuse, demonstrate empathy for the childs responses to the abuse, and begin to participate in the development of a family safety plan. The abuse clarification process is addressed in the offenders individual or group treatment and is ongoing, often for many months before an abuse clarification session is possible. The abuse clarification session provides the opportunity for the offender to read a letter written to the child victim that focuses on the offenders assumption of responsibility, empathy for the child, and commitment to developing the family safety plan. This session is likely to occur some months after the abuse are disclosed, allowing the offender sufficient opportunity to engage in and progress in his/her own treatment. Ideally, at least one supportive adult should be included in the treatment process. Several programs around the country have targeted non-caregivers parents in their approach to treating child sexual abuse and have found success with such an approach.16, 32, 50 Treatment with non-offending caregivers also must also be built upon a foundation of acknowledgement that abuse has occurred. In most cases, where non-offending caregivers believe and support their child, family work addresses the caregivers individual needs. Early treatment strategies must address denial if it is present. Treatment of the non-offending caregiver(s) addresses his/her emotional responses to the abuse and individual mental health needs. In addition, treatment includes focus on the caregivers responses to the childs abuse, education regarding the childs symptoms and provides assistance for developing strategies for reducing these symptoms. It is recommended that the non-offending parent be involved in an abuse protection clarification (Wilson Ralston, 1995). This process is similar to the abuse clarification conducted with the offender. The protection clarification involves clarification of the abuse, commitment to protection of the child, and participation in the development of a family safety plan. The protection clarification may be initiated relatively early in treatment, especially if the non-offending parent believes and supports the child from the time of disclosure. Long-term family resolution of parent-child abuse is a life-long process and involves changing many aspects of family functioning. Some type of resolution must occur in all cases, regardless of whether the child or offender has been removed from the home. Resolution may take the form of helping a child adjust to permanent foster care and cope with a non-supportive family or may involve reunification of the family following the successful completion of individual/group treatment, the clarification process, and family therapy which addresses a safety plan, alteration of family members rigid patterns of thinking and behaving (Saunders Meinig, 2000). Home-Based Services and Family Preservation Services Home-based services and family preservation services address the overall needs of families, include both children and parents, and focus directly on contextual factors, such as poverty, single parenthood, and marital discord, that increase stress, weaken families, and elicit aggressive behavior (Kolko, in press). These programs target functional relationships among diverse individual, family, and systemic problems by combining traditional social work with various therapeutic counseling approaches. The use of home-based services has been advocated in response to the multiple problems found among abusive and neglectful families, difficulties in providing services in a traditional format, and interests in reducing the number of children placed in foster care. The breadth of potential family dysfunction has encouraged hands-on approaches that address risk factors at multiple levels of the family system, such as financial problems, disruption, social isolation, and behavioral deviance (Frankel, 1988). Self-Help Services for Abusive Adults Self-help support and treatment programs are based on the premise that individuals can benefit from learning about the victimization experiences of others. These programs have attracted popular support in a wide range of health services, including the treatment of alcoholism, weight loss, and rape counseling programs, and they have also been applied in the treatment of both physically and sexually abusive adults.. A self-help component has also been integrated into treatment programs for intra-familial sexual abuse (Giaretto, 1982). Parental Enhancement Most parental enhancement programs focus on training abusive parents in child management (e.g., effective discipline), childrearing (e.g., infant stimulation), and self-control skills (e.g., anger control). Programs for neglectful parents typically focus on areas such as nutrition, homemaking, and child care. Parental enhancement programs may help some families who experience child management problems when a sexually abusive father is removed from the home. In these cases, child management skills help develop positive child- parent interaction in sexually abusive families. The efficacy of parent training approaches for physically abusive parents has been supported by various single-case studies, one study using repeated measures, and group design studies (Azar and Twentyman, 1984; Crimmins et al., 1984; Gilbert, 1976; Jeffrey, 1976; Reid et al., 1981; Szykula and Fleischman, 1985; Wolfe et al., 1981a,b, 1982). Studies of multiple approaches and diverse populations have provided consistent evidence that parents can acquire behavioral skills and use them in interactions with their children, at least in clinical settings (Golub et al., 1987). Some evidence suggests that training has reduced parental distress or symptomatology and, in some instances, improved child functioning (Wolfe et al., 1988) and reduced the likelihood of child placement (Szykula and Fleischman, 1985). Efforts to expand the scope of parental enhancement programs have fostered attention to parents cognitive-attributional and affective repertoires (see Azar and Siegel, 1990). Therapeuti c directions highlight the need to incorporate diverse skills and to evaluate the effectiveness of individual approaches (see Azar and Wolfe,1989). Psychopharmacologic treatment for child victims Medications may be used with child victims of abuse and neglect who are experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A number of medications may be of use, though the state of our knowledge about which are most appropriate for use in children is limited. Some have recommended that the use of medication may be reserved for those children who do not show improvement with cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD. Children experiencing other types of behavioral or emotional difficulties, including depression, anxiety, or attentional problems also can benefit from pharmacologic treatment. In all cases, the choice of medications is determined by psychiatrist through a careful assessment. Family Income and Supplemental Benefits The relationship of poverty to child maltreatment, specifically child neglect, is thought to be significant. Several government programs designed to alleviate or mitigate the effects of poverty on children are often part of a comprehensive set of services for low-income, maltreating families. Such programs include Social Security supplemental income programs, Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), Women with Infants and Children food supplement program (WIC), Head Start, rent subsidy programs, and school lunch programs, among others. Gil (1970) has stated that almost 60 percent of families reported for incidents of abuse and neglect received aid from public assistance agencies during or prior to the study year. However, while national and local child welfare programs designed to improve the well-being of all poor families may provide food, shelter, and other necessary resources, for children in households characterized by neglect or abuse, the relationship between income support, material assistance, and the subsequent reduction of maltreatment has not been systematically addressed. CONCLUSIONS Medical, psychological, social, and legal interventions in child maltreatment cases are based on assumptions that such interventions can reduce the negative physical, behavioral, and psychological consequences of child abuse and neglect, foster attitudes and behaviors that improve the quality of parent-child interactions and limit or eradicate recurrences of maltreatment. Interventions have been developed in response to public, professional, legal, and budgetary pressures that often have competing and sometimes contradictory policies and objectives. Some intervention services focus on protecting the child or protecting the community; others focus on providing individual treatment for the child, the offender, or both; others emphasize developing family coping strategies and improving skills in parent-child interactions. Assumptions about the severity of selected risk factors, the adequacy of caretaking behaviors, the impact of abuse, and the steps necessary to prevent abuse or neglect from recurring may vary given the goals and context of the intervention. Little is known about the character and effects of existing interventions in treating different forms of child maltreatment. No comprehensive inventory of treatment interventions currently exists, and we lack basic descriptive and evaluative information regarding key factors that influence the delivery and outcomes of treatment for victims and offenders at different developmental stages and in different environmental contexts. A coherent base of research information on the effectiveness of treatment is not available at this time to guide the decisions of case workers, probation officers, health professionals, family counselors, and judges. Investigations of child maltreatment reports often influence the development and availability of other professional services, including medical examinations, counseling, evaluation of risk factors, and substantiation of complaints. References Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation. (2004a). Who are the children in foster care? NSCAW Research Brief No. 1. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect website: www.ndacan. cornell.edu/NDACAN/Datasets/Related_Docs/NSCAW_Research_Brief_1.pdf A

Popularity of Short Message Service (Sms) Usage & Its Effect on Written Language Deterioration

Communication technology is changing our way of life. Language is no exception. Some language researchers argue that written language is deteriorating due to the increase usage of electronic communication. The present study investigated 50 mobile phone users selected randomly using Short Messaging Service (SMS) as one of their daily communication tools with the purpose to find out whether SMS language will cause written language deterioration in Malaysia. SMS language is defined as using abbreviations, newly created words, code-switching, code-mixing and emoticons in the messages. The findings indicated that the majority of the respondents agree that SMS language causes written language deterioration. This could be because messages are full of spoken-like spelling, unconventional use of punctuation and abbreviations, and ungrammatical sentence in order to conform to the conditions of electronic communication to reduce space, time and effort. Although the language change due to the advancements in electronic communication technology is inevitable, we have to bear in mind that the negative impact on the written language has to do with the technology users not the technology itself. Introduction What is communication? Communication is a process of transferring information whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver using a channel (Wikipedia). In recent years, mobile phone has been viewed as an important communication tool and has become an integral part of the Malaysian society. Nowadays, it is very common to see Malaysians chatting or texting on their mobile phones in the streets, in the shopping malls, while waiting for public transportations to the point that the mobile phone has become an essential item to some people especially the younger generation. The mobile phone first appeared in Malaysia in 1998 and was mainly used by professionals. It was bulky, expensive, and built with basic features such as voice call. Today, mobile phones are equipped with other hi-tech features that allow faster communication and entertainment such as Short Message Service (SMS), MP3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3) player, games, internet and videos. These additional features attracted people from all walks of life including the younger generation, and consequently led to the increase in the number of mobile phone users in Malaysia. According to the survey conducted by the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC), there were 24,253,000 mobile phone subscribers in Malaysia at end March 2008. It was also reported that as many as 50. 7% mobile phone users send out an average of five (5) SMSes a day. Compared to 2004 which recorded a percentage of 31. 7%, the number of mobile phone users sending out an average of five (5) SMSes per day has increased by 19% (Hand Phone Users Survey, 2008). The factors which have contributed to the popularity of SMS usage could be due to its widespread usage, mobility, low cost and convenience. For example, sending a message via text to a family or friend across the country or even living abroad, would be cheaper than the cost of roaming and long distance phone charges. SMS is extensively used not only for communication purposes, but also as a major marketing tool due to its low cost. Besides that, it is also very convenient for mobile phone users. A message can be easily and quickly transmitted just by pressing a few buttons instead of the conventional method of waiting for the telephone call to be put through or waiting to leave a voice message after a lengthy and annoying answering machine message. Due to character limitations and restrictions in a SMS message, it is a common practice for SMS users to maximize the contents of the messages sent by using abbreviations, newly created words, code-switching, code-mixing and emoticons in their SMS messages. How has this increasingly popular practice affect our written language then? As most Malaysians are multi-lingual, will the widespread use of SMS cause language deterioration? This research aims to investigate and analyze the relationship between SMS usage and whether it causes language deterioration in Malaysia by using abbreviations, newly created words, code-switching, code-mixing and emoticons in the messages.

What Is Anthrax Risk and Prevention

Genetic Engineering Essay - 1556 Words

Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering is the alteration of genetic code by artificial means, and is therefore different from traditional selective breeding. Genetic engineering (GE) is used to take genes and segments of DNA from one species, e.g. fish, and put them into another species, e.g. tomato. To do so, GE provides a set of techniques to cut DNA either randomly or at a number of specific sites. Once isolated one can study the different segments of DNA, multiply them up and splice them (stick them) next to any other DNA of another cell or organism. GE makes it possible to break through the species barrier and to shuffle information between completely unrelated species; for example, to†¦show more content†¦(New animals created through the process of cross-species gene transfer are called xenographs. The transplanting of organs across species is called xenotransplantation.) A combination of genetic engineering and cloning is leading to the development of animals for meat with less fat, etc. Fish are being genetically engineered to grow larger and more rapidly. 3) Many pharmaceutical drugs, including insulin, are already genetically engineered in the laboratory. Many enzymes used in the food industry, including rennet used in cheese production, are also available in genetically engineered form and are in widespread use. 4) Medical researchers are genetically engineering disease carrying insects so that their disease potency is destroyed. They are genetically engineering human skin9 and soon hope to do the same with entire organs and other body parts. 5) Genetic screening is already used to screen for some hereditary conditions. Research is ongoing in the use of gene therapy in the attempt to correct some of these conditions. Other research is focusing on techniques to make genetic changes directly in human embryos. 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Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee - 1699 Words

People of different race go through an unfathomable amount of issues concerning their race and social class. Problems with race and social class enhance a considerable amount of problems which takes place throughout the novel. Throughout Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird, three main conflicts arise throughout the story. The people of the town are extremely prejudice not only with race but with social class, also during the novel, the residents of Maycomb show an unfair bias towards people of a different races and social class, but guilt and innocence is the resolution of it all. Ignorance often leads to a poor perception of a specific group of people. Boo Radley, a creature whom the people of Maycomb know little about, is a†¦show more content†¦The townspeople associate his strangeness with evil and foster a prejudice against Boo† (Steven 272). As the talk and rumors go on throughout the town, people start to believe them, and it starts to overpower their thoughts. Scout, Dill, and Jem’s curiosity gets the best of them. They start to pretend to be in a scenario involving Boo Radley, in Jem and Scouts front yard. While they do this the kids start to get anxious about seeing Boo. They begin to plot their investigation to see Boo Radley. As ___ conformes, â€Å"Boo Radley is compelling enigma and source of adventure for the children, but he also represents Scout’s most personal lesson in judging others based upon surface appearance† (Felty 298). Atticus’s main lesson throughout the story is for Scout and Jem no t to judge a person unless they have been in their shoes, and have gone through what that person is going through. Scout does not understand why Boo wants to stay inside, but as the novel continues Scout sees that Boo is not what people say that he is. She realizes that she and all the others are wrong about Boo. Boo gains a connection with the children after watching them act in their front yard. In the beginning Boo is compared as a monster or some kind of ghost, but in all honesty, he is the complete opposite. By the end of the novel Boo, as a matter of fact, can almost

Marketing Efforts Paper Free Essays

Big Brothers Big Sisters Metro Atlanta – Marketing Efforts Paper Tolejala Keel PA 572 Managing Nonprofit Development Programs Keller Graduate School Professor Ian Coyle Table of Contents I. Introduction 3 II. Historical Background 3,4 III. We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing Efforts Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now Mission Statement4 IV. Marketing Methods- Organization Centered4,5 V. Marketing Methods- Customer Centered5,6 VI. Recommendations6 VII. References7 Big Brothers Big Sisters I. Introduction The greater metro Atlanta organization is one of the most successful and diverse chapters of Big Brothers Big Sisters. Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) helps at-risk children beat the odds. Big Brothers Big Sisters is the world? s largest mentoring program helping over 270,000 children around the world reach their potential through professionally supported one-to-one relationships. They nurture children, help them realize their potential and build their futures. In doing so they also strengthen communities. Each time Big Brothers Big Sisters pairs a child with a role model, one-to-one relationships are built on trust and friendship. These friendships often develop into a future of unlimited potential. II. Historical Background In 1904 Ernest Kent Coulter, a young New York City court clerk named noticed the increased of young boys introduced to the court system. He knew something needed to be done to help these kids and set out to find willing and caring adults volunteers that could help these boys stay out of trouble. That marked the beginning of Big Brothers Big Sisters of New York City and the Big Brothers movement. At around the same time, the members of a group called Ladies of Charity were befriending girls who had come through the New York Children’s Court. That group would later become Catholic Big Sisters. Both groups continued to work independently until 1977, when Big Brothers of America and Big Sisters International joined forces and became Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. Big Brothers Big Sisters of Metro Atlanta (BBBS) has been serving the Metro Atlanta area for nearly fifty years. Our goal is to enrich children’s lives and provide a solid foundation to allow the next generation to be all they can be—one child at a time. III. Mission Statement The mission of Big Brothers Big Sisters is to provide children facing adversity with strong and enduring, professionally supported one-to-one relationships that change their lives for the better, forever. Vision: all children achieve success in life. Accountability: by partnering with parents/guardians, volunteers and others in the community we are accountable for each child in our program achieving: * Higher aspirations, greater confidence, and better relationships * Avoidance of risky behaviors * Educational success IV. Marketing Methods- Organization Centered Big Brothers Big Sisters plan involves the development of a more robust, sustainable resource engine focused on our mission and vision, led by strong board and executive leadership, and strengthened by investments in our fund development systems Below are some of their marketing programs that are organization-centered: A. School-Based Mentoring program is built on partnerships between Metro Atlanta corporations and Big Brothers Big Sisters of Metro Atlanta (BBBS) with the goal of creating mentoring friendships between corporate volunteers and elementary or middle school within close proximity of the corporate site. The corporations sponsor such programs as job shadowing and career day activities on site. The School-Based program includes partnerships with local colleges in addition to those with local corporations. B. Big Brothers Big Sisters of Metro Atlanta is a well established, recognized and respected charity, and has been changing the lives of disadvantaged children for over 100 years. With the support of their valued partners, they can provide and expand many programs, activities and services. They offer many attractive partnership opportunities, from cause marketing campaigns, Workplace Mentoring, and event sponsorships. These partnerships helps businesses achieve their own business objectives while empowering (BBBS) to strengthen the resiliency of the children, heightening their self-esteem, improving their school performance, enhancing their social and family relationships, and helping them avoid trouble with the law. V. Marketing Methods- Customer Centered When people think of mentoring programs, they think of Big Brothers Big Sisters. As an established youth organization, we’ve worked for more than 100 years to develop youth mentoring programs that work. Our experienced approach to recruiting, screening, matching, and supporting our mentoring relationships has resulted in thousands of lasting relationships and helped change the lives of young people across the country. Below are some of their marketing programs that are customer-centered: A. Mentoring Towards College (MTC) is a comprehensive curriculum with a dual mission: to support academic success in each grade level AND to ensure on-time graduation and college matriculation. In this program, the Mentor uses the MTC curriculum to provide direction and guidance while the child is actually responsible for completing the objectives which include workshops, discussions and programs. All MTC activities work toward the goal of academic success in high school and college preparation. B. The Star Program allows the mentors and children matches to experience theatre first-hand, and explore their imaginations as well as the world around them. Through special after-school performances, matches experience the Atlanta’s many unique and artistic performances and exhibits geared towards complementing student development. VI. Recommendations Research has shown that most non-profit organizations have an â€Å"organization-centered† mindset. However moving from an â€Å"organization-centered† to a â€Å"customer-centered† approach to marketing will provide a better opportunity for non-profit organizations to increase their competitive advantage and aid in meeting the terms organizational mission. There are two ways in which Big Brothers Big Sisters can become more customer-centered in their marketing efforts: A. Big Brothers Big Sisters can capitalize on Atlanta’s reputation as a very cultural city and professional sports teams. Most Valuable Kids (MVK) will provide (BBBS) children with ticket donations to attend cultural events, professional and collegiate sports and entertainment events. Live entertainment provides a positive source of inspiration for children in a world where there are many negative alternatives. B. Hispanic Mentoring Program- According to the U. S. Census Bureau. Latinos make up about 14 percent of the nation’s population and more than one-third of all Hispanics in the United States are under age 18. Over one-quarter of Hispanic children under 18 in the U. S. live in poverty. The Hispanic Mentoring Program continues the Big Brothers Big Sisters tradition of outreach to at-risk youth by emphasizing the connection with Hispanic communities and the recruitment of Latino volunteers. References Andreasen, Alan R. , and Philip Kotler. Strategic Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2008. â€Å"Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Sept. 2012. Web. 16 Sept. 2012. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Big_Brothers_Big_Sisters_of_America. â€Å"The Big Move! † Big Brothers Big Sisters of Metro Atlanta. N. p. , n. d. Web. 10 Sept. 2012. http://www. bbbsatl. org/. â€Å"Start Something for a Child Today-Big Brothers Big Sisters. † . N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Sept. 2012. http://www. bbbs. org/. How to cite Marketing Efforts Paper, Essay examples

Multinational Organisations Must Retain and Develop a Workforce with a

Question: Discuss about multinational organisations must retain and develop a workforce with a global mindset? Answer: Globalisation of businesses has been a common phenomenon that has been evident at an increasing level in the 21st century. The availability of incentives to businesses in going global such as the chances of higher growth in their business has driven more and more of them to go global. This has resulted into businesses having their operations in more than one country with a view to leverage on the opportunities available in such markets. However, in looking towards achieving such higher growth levels across international market, one such major issue that act as barrier to them is their workforce. The management of workforce at the international level has been highly difficult because of the existence of various important factors such as cultural differences, language issues and many more. Even the mindset of workforce in many countries is limited to their local level and this restricts them from exploring the opportunities in the international markets. This has been a crucial issue th at act as a barrier in the internationalisation process, and an important solution in this regard can be the development of workforce with global mindset. This essay is aimed at analysing the existing literature with a view to evaluate whether multinational organisations must retain and develop their workforce with global mindset. In this relation, the essay includes a critical analysis of the findings of the past researchers regarding workforce management in international context. However, it is argued that the focus of multinational organisations should be towards developing their workforce with global mindset. Arguments Supporting the Case As businesses are expanding at the international markets at a highly rapid pace, it is essential that their managers and employees should be globally minded. This is mainly because a globally oriented nature of the managers would allow them in efficiently handling and managing the international projects efficiently. According to a study as conducted by Arora, Jaju, Kefalas and Perenich (2004), it has been identified that increase in the business across international borders has necessitated the need for global managers. The study was focused towards US textile and apparel industry, and it emphasises on the characteristics of global mindset in terms of conceptualisation/contextualisation abilities. The conduct of the study has resulted into identification that global mindset of existing workforce is essential so that they can adapt to different markets as per the location conditions. The study indicated that the global mindset can be created within existing organisational by providing them adequate level of training before sending them on international assignments (Arora, Jaju, Kefalas and Perenich, 2004). The role of mindsets is crucial in achieving desired level of outputs from the employees as per a study performed by Keating and Heslin (2015). The study indicates that mindsets are mental framework that guides people regarding the ways in which they think, feel and act. By shaping their mindset towards global oriented nature of organisation management, it could be possible in achieving better performance of employees at the international projects (Keating and Heslin, 2015). The role of global mindset is indicated as important by Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) in their study on cultivating a global mindset. They have indicated in their study that the failure of majority of the US companies in the Japanese markets initially was mainly the heterogeneous environment conditions, and these US companies have ignored such heterogeneity factor. The study indicates that the workforce is crucial to achieving success in the international markets, and at the same time, they must be intelligent en ough to operate across diverse and dynamic environment conditions. As per the study findings, creating a global mindset is regarded as central ingredients in addressing market requirements across international markets (Gupta and Govindarajan, 2002). With a global mindset developed within workforce, it could be possible in achieving higher level of integrate diversity across cultures and markets. With better abilities among the organisational employees in integrating efficiently across cultures, they have the better potential in meeting out the needs and requirements of businesses across international levels. A study by Nummela, Saareketo and Puumalainen (2009) has indicated that one of the most important prerequisite for the successful internationalisation of business activities in the 21st century is mainly the development of global mindset within employees. This is identified as integral to success across international markets because such global mindset allows for the efficient overall management of task and processes as per the local environment conditions. The chances of success as a result of such cross market compatibility are higher, and this leads to higher emphasis being placed over the management of workforce with glo bal mindset in the study. Job rotation is identified as an important strategy in which the promotion of workforce with global mindset can be accomplished (Nummela, Saarenketo and Puumalainen, 2009). The global mindset of workforce is identified as critical from the point of view of handing the cross cultural environment and/or cross border jobs. This is mainly because a global mindset includes a strong learning orientation whereby workforce learn new things which enables them in applying their learning in better management international projects (Beechler and Woodward, 2009). The global mindset is considered as essential by Kedia and Mukherji (2009) because with the increasing companies striving to expand internationally in achieving higher growth opportunities, it is essential that they must focus towards managing their operations across international boundaries by way of creating globally mindset attitude. This has been a key factor in respect to achieving competitiveness as indicated by Kedia and Mukherji (2009) in their study, as businesses can perform efficient management of their practices across international boundaries through having multitalented or global mindset emplo yees (Kedia and Mukherji, 2009). According to Christiansen and Bryan (2013), a manager with global mindset has a better level of understanding with regard to global integration and local responsiveness strategies that are likely to work. It is highly essential that businesses should customise their strategies and activities across different markets so that they can better address their customer expectations efficiently in such diverse market. In this relation, the global minded orientation of employees has been highly significant from the point of view of allowing businesses in addressing international requirements efficiently. The global mindset of people is beneficial to businesses in the sense that it results into an appreciation for diversity as well as homogeneity and also an openness to learn from all possible sources. With so much of assistance from globally mindset attitude of employees, it needs to be highly encouraged especially by the multinational corporations with a view to achieving higher level of suc cess and growth in their performance (Christiansen and Bryan, 2013). The main purpose of businesses behind expanding into the international markets is mainly to achieve higher level of growth and development. The role of global mindset is critical as identified in a study conducted by Lovvorn and Chen (2011). They have carried out a study that is primarily focused towards analysing the relationship between international assignment and cultural intelligence and the conduct of the study has resulted into the argument that global mindset of employee is the first major factor that must be considered by businesses in becoming multinational. The international assignments are considered as the most efficient way in cultivating global mindset within employees as such international assignments provide unique and tacit knowledge to employees that is essential to them in achieving success internationally. As suggested by Marquardt (2009), it is essential that businesses should understand the local requirements across different markets whereby they aim at performing their operations. This can be positively accomplished by way of striving towards developing a global mindset within their employees. This would allow them in making changes to their approach while handling international assignments and the resulting impact would be better performance of the entire organisation (Marquardt, 2009). It is the employees of the organisation that have to carry out the roles and responsibilities of the organisation, and they need to be culturally aware of different working conditions so that changing business environment condition is positively addressed by them. A global mindset is therefore positive to supporting the employees even in different working conditions away from their home country environment to adjust themselves efficiently and meeting out the requirements. However, an important question in this regard of supporting global mindset within employees is that whether such global mindset of employee is likely to create positive values for a company that has its operations only in domestic markets only. The answer to this question has been provided by Gupta, Govindarajan and Wang (2015) and they have indicated that global mindset is essential in respect to multinational companies and also in respect to local companies because global mindset explores the attitude of the employees and enables them in handling their operations even at the local level. With the enhanced level of knowledge and abilities, such experienced workers can contribute towards accomplishing organisational goals in a positive way. This leads to the identification that global mindset is beneficial irrespective of whether the company performs expansion of its business activities into global market or not (Gupta, Govindarajan and Wang, 2015). Such global mindset within the existing employees is highly justified because it has been a crucial factor that accounts for bringing in large number of advantageous benefits to the organisation. As for instance, the global mindset enables an organisation with the ability to combine speed with accurate response. The benefits that are being possible from global mindset can allow an organisation in achieving competitive advantage over others. The important sources of competitive advantages from such global mindset approach in managing their operations can be categorised as early mover, trade-offs, best practices, new products and coordination. These aspects are crucial from the point of view of allowing the organisation in accomplishing competitive advantage from considering such global mindset. Although global mindset is quite beneficial to an organisation from the point of view of allowing them in achieving competitiveness, yet there are certain major initiatives that are essential t o be considered by such organisations in achieving competitiveness. An analysis of such initiatives indicate that they must include a friendliness behaviour despite the existence of cultural differences, performing efficient level of communication across global as well as local demands, encouraging formal and informal best practice sharing, acting on emerging opportunities and focus towards building trust across cross cultural setting. These are the important factors that must be considered in ensuring that the positive level of mindset is supported within employees so that they can address even different business environment in a positive way. The global managers as suggested by Gupta and Govindarajan (2002) has usually open mind and they have better understanding of the ways in which different country behaves and operates in particular. As a result of this, they can ensure the efficient management of organisational processes even across international business environment (Gupta and Govindarajan, 2002). An important finding has been indicated by the study as carried out by Gupta and Govindrajan (2002) with regard to building global mindset within their workforce. In achieving cohesiveness with regard to building a globally mindset workforce, it is essential that such businesses should focus towards facilitating increasing level of knowledge building at the level of individuals. Apart from applying this strategy in particular, it is also highly essential that there should be the encouragement of diversity with regard to composition of people in making up the company. This indicates that diversity management is an important way in which organisations can empower their existing employees to cultivate a global mindset within them, and thereby in making them compatible in addressing complex external environment in a positive way. This has been a crucial factor supporting the growth and development of global mindset within employees, and this could ultimately become a competitive edge to the organisation at large (zbilgin, Groutsis and Harvey, 2014). Another important way that can be utilised in order to develop global mindset is sending the employees to assignments across global boundaries. It is essential that the expatriate managers are offered with sufficient level of support in the form of training so that they can ensure the enhancement of their global focus and by performing across such international assignments, there could be the further level of improvement in their skills and abilities in taking such international assignments efficiently. With such global mindset, it has been extremely important that employees should look towards achieving improvement with regard to their abilities (Dekker, 2013). This is mainly because successful operations at the international level require the application of sound knowledge and abilities. The global mindset would not only benefits the employees in applying their domestic application of knowledge and skills, but it would also assist them in applying their global oriented learning fro m such international assignments (Ungson and Wong, 2008). Overall, the analysis of the arguments above clarifies that a global mindset is highly essential to employees in addressing the increasing requirements of their business, and it is therefore essential that businesses should look for creating and retaining employees with such global mindset in their business. Conclusion This essay involved a critical assessment of argument that the employees should be developed in respect to multinational organisations by way of focusing solely towards a global mindset approach within them. The conduct of analysis has indicated that global mindset is the ability of employees in efficiently performing the management of global organisation. A global mindset within the employees implies that they are ready to work on the international projects efficiently and they have requisite abilities in doing so. However, the review of literature has indicated findings that with increasing businesses expanding their operations into international markets, it has been highly essential that the development of their employees should be achieved by considering this phenomenon of global mindset. This is mainly because the global mindset phenomenon allows for handling not only the domestic project, but there can be appropriate management of the international assignments that could also b ecome possible. The conduct of analysis has also indicated that there is a need for training and appropriate level of assistance in the form of sending employees to international assignments so that they can be developed efficiently in addressing organisational requirements even at the local and global level. The performance of analysis has also indicated that there are significant level of benefits that could be accomplished from ensuring such development of global mindset within the workforce. As a result, on the basis of entire analysis as performed, it has been identified crucial for the multinational organisations that they should develop and retain employees with the purpose of global mindset so that the increasing requirement of businesses in meeting out the global market needs can be efficiently addressed. References Arora, A., Jaju, A., Kefalas, A.G. and Perenich, T. (2004), An exploratory analysis of global managerial mindsets: a case of U.S. textile and apparel industry, Journal of International Management, Vol. 10, pp. 393-411. Beechler, S. and Woodward, I.C. (2009), The global war for talent, Journal of International Management, Vol. 15, pp. 273-285. Christiansen and Bryan, (2013), Cultural and Technological Influences on Global Business, IGI Global. Dekker, W.D. (2013), Global Mindset and Leadership Effectiveness, Palgrave Macmillan. Gupta, A.K., Govindarajan, V. and Wang, H. (2015), The Quest for Global Dominance: Transforming Global Presence into Global Competitive Advantage, 2nd ed., John Wiley Sons. Gupta, A.K. and Govindarajan, V. (2002), Cultivating a Global Mindset, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 16 (1), pp. 116-126. Keating, L.A. and Heslin, P.A. (2015), The potential role of mindsets in unleashing employee engagement, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. Xxx, pp. 1-13. Kedia, B.L. and Mukherji, A. (2009), Global Managers: Developing A Mindset For Global Competitiveness, Journal of World Business, Vol. 34 (3), pp. 230-251. Lovvorn, A. and Chen, J. (2011), Developing a Global Mindset: The Relationship between an International Assignment and Cultural Intelligence, International Journal of Business and Social Science, Vol. 2 (9), pp. 275-283. Marquardt, M.J. (2009), The Global Advantage, Routledge. Nummela, N., Saarenketo, S. and Puumalainen, K. (2009), A Global Mindset A Prerequisite for Successful Internationalization?, Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 21 (1), pp. 51-64. zbilgin, M., Groutsis, D. and Harvey, W. (2014), International Human Resource Management, Cambridge University Press. Ungson, G.R. and Wong, Y. (2008), Global Strategic Management, M.E. Sharpe.